Chapter 12: The Worlds of the Fifteenth Century

This chapter opened up with interesting facts about Christopher Columbus; claiming that he was not a hero, but a prate, slave trader, and thief. As I child, I remember celebrating Christopher Columbus as hero who discovered the Americas throughout elementary school.  The different perceptions of Columbus simply remind us of the unpredictability of history, as people tend to interpret or manipulate evidence and events in their own manner.  One thing that everyone can agree on, is that Christopher Columbus’ encounter  of the Americas was revolutionary, and changed the route of history. It was one of the most important events that occurred throughout world history.  This chapter is unique, in that it is the first chapter in our book that looks at the world as a whole. It is fascinating to view history form not just one perspective or occurrence of a specific empire or state, but as a whole.  

This chapter allows us to read about how the Chinese empire was flourishing, while hunter and gathering societies were in their own world, persevering the ways of their ancestors. Regions with considerable amounts of Paleolithic habits were Americas, Australia, Siberia, and parts of Africa.  In many cases, egalitarian presence existed quite    prevalently throughout these societies. I find it fascinating that empires like China were making revolutionary strides in technology and others aspects, while at the same time smaller bands of people lives like the world never changed.  It was as if these isolated groups of people were stuck in time, following the ways of their Paleolithic ancestors. However, it was only a matter of time that most of these smaller societies were absorbed by much larger empires.

Another aspect I found interesting was the impact of the Mongols on China.  I realized that the Mongols were aggressive people, who violated the people of China in many ways; however, I had no clue how devastating the effects were.  In the fifteenth century, China worked hard to rebuild much of what the Mongols destroyed. Fortunately for Europeans, they escaped the lingering effects of the Mongols, but received the worst of plague. Both Europe and China had to persevere through these major obstacles, as they worked to reclaim themselves as global powerhouses. China worked in unity, as the entire state worked in unison to rebuild physically and spiritually.  Europe did not undergo the same cohesion as a state, various groups evolved and often competed with one another.

As Europe and China reestablished their profound presences on the planet, they became interested in voyages. Both sought to reach and explore new lands, and although China had a much greater fleet of ships, it was Europe that persisted with the exploration.  In particularly, Spain and Portugal explored the planet and in turn found the Americas. Europeans saw this as an opportunity to expand and profit, while China abandoned their voyages.

While all of this was occurring, the Islamic state emerged.  They established political and military powers, launching them into economic prosperity.  Simultaneously occurring was the Aztec and Incan empires in Mesoamerica.  The Aztec empire struggled to maintain a power, as rebellions often broke-out. The Incan empire, on the other hand, was a more organized bureaucratic empire.  Although their political systems differed vastly, their views on gender relations closely mirrored each other.  I enjoyed reading about empires in the fifteenth century that established specific roles for both men and women, but valued these roles equally. Although women’s roles diverged from men’s, they were still though of as equal counterparts. 

After the Agriculture Revolution took place, in the Neolithic Era, it is amazing to witness how diversely people in various parts of the world evolved. In the fifteenth century, it appears that everyone is on their own page.  Some people sought exploration and domination, while others just wanted to remain content in their old ways and ancient lifestyles. 

Chapter 11 Documents

In chapter 11 documents, we consider the evidence of various perspectives on the Mongols.  These documents are interesting in that two documents reflect the Mongol’s perception of themselves and the other two are outside perspectives of the Mongols. After reading the documents, I was easily able to decipher the different perspectives of the Mongols; however, I personally can not grasp a full understanding of the Mongols because these vastly different perspectives make me question who the Mongols really were.

Throughout history the Mongols have been portrayed as aggressive and destructive peoples; however, this first document sheds light over these perceptions in which a clearer image of who the Mongols really were shines through. The Secret History of the Mongols, is a written account from a Mongol source.  I was shocked reading this document, as I previously had an image of the Mongolians and this document completely shattered my depiction.  I soon learned that Mongols had a tradition or practice called anda which was a very close relationship between two unrelated men. This was a unique concept to me, I don’t recall any other people or empires that we have studied that have a practice similar to anda. With my previous image of the Mongols, I would have never guessed that a practice like the anda, would have been a prized tradition within the Mongolian community. This document reveals that “when two men become anda their lives become one, one will never desert the other and will always defend him...and love each other forever.”  This quote specifically altered my perception of the Mongols. This does not seem like a practice that a bunch of destructive savages would possess, but a practice that honorable educated men would engage in.

The next document comes from the voice of Chinggis Khan in Letter to Changehun.  Chinggis Kahn is often depicted as a ruthless dictator, but this document shows a very different side of Kahn, in which here appears to emits a great sense of passion and pride for his people and his position of rule. Although Kahn had much success during his rule, he appears very modest and willing to sacrifice himself for his people. The document conveys: “I hate luxury and exercise moderation. I have only one coat and one food... I consider the people my children, and bothers...At military exercises I am always in the front...”  In my opinion, this is a symbol of a highly respectable leader that any country or empire would be lucky to have. Although Kahn my had a hard exterior, this documents reveals Kahn interior self is passionate and in many ways selfless. It is unfortunate that many historians and people in general only remember Kahn for his stern rule, as oppose to his softer more emotional side that drives him to success. 

The third document is the perspective of Russia who possesses a very stereotypical vision of the Mongols.  In The Chronicle of Novgorod, the Russians paint a fearful picture of the Mongols who appear to be terrorizing the a Russian village. The document coveys that the Mongols set the city on fire and killed anyone from men, women, children, nuns, monks, and even priests.  This picture painted is absolutely awful, and in reading this document I can almost feel the fear of theses people the Mongols victimized.  Its so dumbfounding to see how quickly my feeling of the Mongols changed after reading this document.  Perhaps there is such somewhat of an  exaggeration here, but even if you bring the severity of these actions down a level, the actions committed here would still be horrendous.

The last document is a Chinese perspective of the Mongols.  The Epitaph for the Honorable Menggu, creates an image of an oppressive Mongolian force; however, not as extreme as the Russian perspective. The document focuses on a Mongol representative, named Menggu, who was well like by the Chinese people.  Meggu appeared as an authority figure for the Chinese people, but promoted an environment for peace, safety, and overall love for one another. Meggu must have had a profound impact on the Chinese people, for many other “outsiders” perceived the Mongols as a  reckless, dangerous, and perhaps gruesome peoples.

The various perspectives of the Mongols are clearly of wide range.  I find it difficult to complete my own perspective of the Mongols, but after reading this specific evidence; I am leaning towards a more positive image of these people.  Although the Mongols have often been associated with raids and murders, the compassion they have for one another in these documents and even for outsiders in the last document is heart warming. I feel like if our society genuinely cared for one another, and humanity in general, our world  would most defiantly be a better place. 

Chapter 9 Documents

The documents for chapter nine are significant to Islam, as each contributes their own style or approach to following the religion.  Although these numerous voices of Islam are highly valued within the religion, I found that the variations of voices create room for multiple interpretations, in regards to maintaining the guidelines of the religion itself. 

The first documents comes from The Quran and conveys the voice of Allah or God.  In this case, the words of the Quran are allegedly believe to be the exact words of God, spoken by the angel Gabriel to the prophet Muhammad. When reading the Quran, I found that many beliefs are similar to that of Christianity; however, the deviations begin when the the voice speaks of good works.  The voice in  Quran conveys that one must be in constant prayer, must help the poor, and speak kindly to all people.  Although these things are valued in Christianity, they are not set in stone as a necessity to fulfill one’s responsibility as a follower of the religion. Another interesting aspect in the Quran is the subject of gender relations, claiming that righteous women are obedient and if they are disobedient than man has the right to “beat them lightly”.  I found that aspect a bit disturbing, considering the next lines speak of living not forces women against her will and to live in kindness and equality with her; appearing very contradicting to me. 

The second documents comes from the voice of the prophet Muhammad in The Hadith which also left me confused after reading some of the statements about women.  “I had a look into Hell and saw that most of the inhabitants were women...”  (Strayer 448). That statement stuck me as simply “wow”, I was somewhat speechless in thought; however the following line just confused me even more. “Treat women-fold kindly, for women was created of a rib”   (Strayer 448). Once again, I feel as though this document is contradicting, but perhaps I am greatly misinterpreting a deeper understanding. Disregarding the gender aspects, I did respect Muhammad’s vision to live modestly and avoid the materialistic manners or desires.  

In the third document the voice of law is represented in The Sharia.  This documents was interesting, for I found many of the laws completely random; however, I formed my opinion based on the perception of the twenty-first century, perhaps if I lived in the ninth century these laws would appear more relevant to me. I found the laws of marriage the most spontaneous.   For example it is unlawful for one man to marry two women who are sisters, but a free man may marry four women who are free or slaves. Reading this I’m completely lost as to how they articulated such  laws, but I suppose it worked for them considering that the religion endured the adversities of time and managed become one of the worlds most prevalent religions. 

The fourth document is the voice of the Sufis or “friends of God”. This particular voice is spoken by a poet named Rumi who’s works are popular within the Islamic world.  His poetry is so inspirational that his reputation expanded beyond the Islamic world to a global scale. I was surprised to here that Rumi was a best selling poet in the United States; however, once I read his poetry I understood why his works were so well liked. After reading the laws of the Sharia, it was refreshing to read Rumi’s poetry. The laws of Sharia are so exact, so strict, I would imagine that the people would feel fearful of maintaining such laws.  Rumi’s poetry takes on a very different approach in expressing how to embrace one’s faith. I really enjoyed reading his poems, and found that the imagery presented in his poetry emitted vibes of positivity and encouragement. 

Each one of these documents has their own unique style in conveying the religion of Islam. I find that it is really up to the individual to decipher how to interpret each one of the voices. However I would not disregard any of these documents as they are significant factors that make up the Islamic culture and religion. 

Chapter 8: China and the World

       After reading chapter 8, China and the World, I felt extremely relieved that I (as a woman) was not born in China.  During the time of third-wave civilizations, China was somewhat of a powerhouse. At this time China was considered to be in the “Golden Age” of Chinese achievements.  The Golden Age consisted of a booming Chinese economy and advanced technologies; however, even these positive attributes could not persuade me to live in China as a woman. 

The Golden Age emphasized arts such as literature, poetry, paintings, and ceramics.  The popular growth of in literature resulted in Neo-Confucianism, as scholars attempted to restructure early Confucianism with popular beliefs in Buddhism and Daoism. The renewal of Confucius beliefs gave raise to a significant patriarchal system throughout China.  Confucius writers highlighted the subordination of women to men, leading to trends such as foot binding. Elite Chinese woman were expected to bind their feet, symbolizing a variety of elements in men’s favor. Ironically foot binding was viewed as sensual and beautiful, however in reality a woman’s foot was completely deformed after the foot binding process.  Foot binding essentially constricted Chinese women, and  was an extremely painful process. The Chinese societies embraced foot biding as a new image of beauty, basically manipulating elite woman into thinking foot binding was all the rage. 

As for the Chinese male, masculinity shifted from levels of physicality to scholarly  aspects promoted through literature and the arts. The Chinese valued knowledge to such an extent, that they even encouraged woman to get educated.  However the only reason they encourage education for females, was to ensure that a mother could raise her son properly.  Simply reenforcing the idea that gender equality was nonexistent  during this third-wave civilization in China.  

The massive value of males in China is undeniable.  I am extremely curious as to how this tremendous gap between male and female inequalities evolved through China.  Is it predominalty because of Confucianism or do other factors come into play? What other influences should we consider?  One thing is for sure, that the Golden Age, was not so golden for women in China during these third-wave civilization. 

The Chinese Empire was massive and powerful, yet somehow the bordering cities, states, and countries managed to retain their own cultures and political philosophies.  There is no doubt that China influenced its bordering countries such as Japan, Vietnam, and Korean; however, these counties did a considerably decent job when maintaining their own sense of identity. Japan, was able to escape the adoption of the inferior woman ideologies possessed by China, while utilizing China’s booming economy by borrowing from the empire.  China’s advancements in technologies were also utilized through Eurasia.  Surprisingly China was not too proud to adopt or mimic other technologies, idea, and religions of other states. Buddhism is an obvious influence that China adopted from India.  Although many Chinese violently neglected the religion, a considerable amount of Chinese fully embraced Buddhism, so much that it still exists predominately through that region today. 

Although China was undoubtably a  major world influence, I personally can not give all the recognition to the country that it may deserve. This is mainly due to the extreme discrimination and undersetimation of the female race. I realize that many other societies discriminate against women; however, after reading this chapter, I feel as if China took it to a new level or high.  

Chapter 6 Documents: Axum and the World

 Unlike previous documents we have studied in our textbook, these particularly documents are centered around the Axumite Empire; as oppose to various empires or places visible throughout the chapter.  Typically when we analyze the documents correlating with specific chapters, a variation of places are presented to us; however, that is not the case with chapter six documents.  I believe the reason that all four documents are focused around Axum is simply because it is one of the few places in Africa that possessed a significant amount of documentary evidence.  In addition, the other part of chapter six is divided among the Americas.  The civilizations within the Americas severely lacked the levels of documentary evidence found in places like Axum; thus making the Axumite Empire the hot topic for discussion within the chapter six documents. 

After reading the documents, I found the state of Axum to be a highly unique and fascinating.  In document 6.1, Axumite culture appeared extremely diverse, as it represented a gateway into other worlds and cultures.  The anonymous author in the document writes: “there are imported into these places undresses cloth made in Egypt for the Berber; robes from Arsinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; double fringed linen mantels; many articles of flint glass...cooking utensils and cut up for bracelets and anklets for the women...” (Strayer 293).  After reading this, I wanted to visit Axum! The wide range of products from all over the world intrigued me!

Document 6.2 returns to roots of the Axumite Empire. The text describes the conquests that established the Axumite Empire.  However, I was surprised to read the the empire originated from somewhat Greek roots. I found most fascinating that the state worshiped fictional gods such as Zeus, Ares, and Poseidon; primarily because the state later became known as a predominately Christian empire. 

After reading document 6.2 I was a bit confused reading about Greek culture observed in early Axum, but document 6.3 answered some of my questions, in regards to the origin and overall spread of Christianity throughout the Axumite Empire. The origin of Christianity in Axum obviously represented a major change in culture and history for the state. I was quick to learn that a boy by the name of Frumentius, had a huge impact in the transition to Christianity.”Frumentius held the reins of government in  his hands God stirred up his heart and he began to search...” (Strayer 296). Frumentius influence became quite receptive to the royal family of Axum, and so began the spread of Christianity. 

Document 6.4 conveys that the Axumite Empire was not only concerned with Christianity, but also their economic ties to the world. What I found most interesting about these documents is the  processes of trading products for gold. “The owner of the meat approaches, and if he is satisfied he takes the gold away... If however he is not satisfied, he leaves the gold...” (Strayer 297).  This unique (speechless) style of business or trade was due to the vast number of different languages within the region.  This style ensured that a proper transaction could take place, without the need of an interpreter.

Before reading chapter six, I honestly had never heard of the Axumite Empire before, or at least I don’t ever recall reading or learning about the empire.  I found that these documents really allowed be to grasp some of the key aspect that made the Axum Empire unique and rememberable. 

Chapter 5: Inequalities in Eurasia/North Africa

       As the second wave of civilizations inhabited our world, s did the growth of inequalities in Eurasia and North Africa. Chapter five in our text book, provides details of    inequalities that further evolved in China, India, Greece, and Rome.  Interestingly enough, each of these counties developed their own structure of society which simultaneously took on massive inequalities. 

In China, society was structured around the wealthy males.  Political power and state officials came with a prestige social status.  Primarily the wealthy males were trained as a potential officer,and those who passed the test could be selected as an official. “After passing the examination, which shows something of fame and fortune that awaited an accomplished student as well as the continuing loyalty to family and home that ideally marked those who succeeded” (Strayer 22).  Clearly at this time in China, the teachings of Confucius were highly influential; as society was structured around educating officials yet maintaing the value of one’s family, two thing the Confucius strongly emphasized in his teachings. The vast majority of the population was not these wealthy officials, but peasants. Peasants are not slaves but people who were extremely poor owning little to no land. Because the peasant population was so immense, rebellions often broke out. The Yellow Turban Rebellion was the strongest and most massive rebellion, which sought for great peace or equality. Although they did not get exactly what they were looking for, they did manage to weaken the economy and overall states in China.  What I found most interesting was the the peasants were actually honored and celebrated  in the official ideology of the sate.  The peasants were considered the backbone of the country, while peasants were viewed as scum.  Merchants did not starts rebellions, but were regarded as selfish , luxury-loving, and materialistic.  Merchant were thought to unfairly gain their wealth, while impoverishing others. 

Similarly to China, in India birth determined social status; however, the caste system was unique and original to India. I know that the cast system started with racial encounters between the light-skinned Aryan invaders and the dark-hued native people.  These beginnings have evolved into a much more complex caste system, which I honestly find a bit confusing. From my understanding, at birth you are placed into one of the four caste system which you are pretty much stuck in for the remainder of you life. Hindu aspects definitely influence these Indian societies, as the particular caste you are born in reflects the good or bad deed of your previous life. Unlike China, Indian rebellions did not break out because the lower classes or peasants on the caste systems were divided.  This made it difficult for the poor and oppressed to gain enough strength to begin a rebellion, depicting another aspect of that favored the wealthy or elite. 

In the Roman Empire slavery was highly prevalent, as one third of the population were slaves.  Even the poor throughout the Roman Empire had two to three slaves, which I found astonishing. Some slaves did have limited rights, some had no rights, and some were lucky enough to receive freedom from their masters. Due to the vast number of slaves, no role was off limits.  THe slaves obtained countless roles that their master wished of them. When the slaves realized that they were a vast portion of the empire, they began a rebellion, The Rebellion of Spartacus. that lasted for two years. After the rebellion gained much success, but when its time came to an end, 6,000 rebel slaves were crucified. Thus reclaiming the elite as the ultimate rule over the empire. 

The dynamic differences between the cities of Sparta and Athens is quite intriguing, in regards to their sense of structure and their opposing priorities.  Athen and Sparta were both cities in Greece, yet had very different understands of a woman’s role in society.  In Athens woman functioned to manage domestic affairs.  They had little economic power and laws prohibited them to buy or sell land. Athens was a political centered city, giving woman “traditional” roles to assume. Sparta on the other hand was a military based city, meaning that men were often away in battles or training for war.  This meant woman accumulated much more power.  Woman were given the right to buy or sale land.  As girls they were even encouraged to play sport, to strengthen their bodies for childbearing.  Overall woman were offered greater freedom and were not segregated because they were an essential part of the Spartan life.  Although the Spartan society emits gender egalitarianism, Sparta was clearly a patriarchy. However, I don’t find anything wrong with Sparta’s patriarchal system. As a woman I am not offended that the Spartan man use their woman for breeding machines, to create great warriors. In fact, if I had to live in any of the places mentioned in chapter five, it would most definitely be Sparta.  There city worked in harmony to create a lifestyle that the people cherished, and most importantly both man and woman assumed vital roles within their society. 

Chapter 4: Documents

       I found the chapter four documents interesting as it depicts the ideology and religious beliefs of the various second wave civilizations and empires.  I am intrigued as to how each civilization adapted their own set of beliefs and religious values, in which some still exist prominently today. 

The first document are recordings from Confucius.  Confucianism thrived throughout China, and it was something that varied greatly from the previous beliefs of Legalism.  The documents are a collection of some of Confucius’ most profound teachings and thoughts. As I read The Analects, I thought this man is wise.  However, some of his response lead me wandering or wanting more of an explanation, as he answered questions with more questions.  When asked about death Confucius says “While you do not know about life, how do you know about death?”  I though this is true, but I wanted to know more, how does Confucius really feel about the afterlife. Although wise, I feel as if he is somewhat unclear.  

The second document are reflections from Hindu scriptures.  Krishna is responding to a moral conflict of killing one’s own blood in a battle.  Interestingly enough Krishna says it would be a sin if one did not kill for it would please Brahman to fight a righteous battle. Krishna emphasizes that those that die will be reborn. He says “For to one that is born, death is certain, and to one that dies, birth is certain.”  Comforting the man, for his family will not simply die, but will be reborn in a different body. Krishna says that he has been reborn time and time again, and one can control the quality of reincarnation by doing good deeds or living morally according to Brahman.  Although I do not agree with these ideas or philosophy of life, I find it entertaining. 

The third document is was a recording by Plato of Socrates, an Athenian’s philosopher, accused of impiety and corrupting the youth of the city.  After reading the Apology, I personally found Socrates innocent of the crime.  In some aspects Socrates reminds me of Confucius, both extremely wise in there words, frequently asking questions to promote critical thinking. Similarly to Confucius, Socrates does not speak of religious theology, although he does mention God.  Socrates make the greatest emphasis on one’s soul.  He  explains that people walk around consumed by materialistic objects and caring too much of one’s status, when they should really focus on gaining wisdom for one’s soul.  Socrates defends himself by stating that he was attempting to aid the works of God by enlightening the citizens of Athen about one’s soul.  I like the fact that Socrates has an immense sense of pride for himself and his philosophies,  not even death can manipulate any of his thoughts.  He sticks firmly to his word, and if that puts him to death, than so be it.  Socrates’ death did have a profound impact on the Greece, as philosophy and rationalism consumed Greece civilians. 

Document four comes from the bible, The Gospel of Matthew. Jesus is recoded, as he teaches a sermon on the Mount.  Jesus enlightens his disciples teaching to love your enemy, never retaliate, never judge, and do not commit righteous acts in order to achieve praise from your peers. All of Jesus’ teaching appear moral and foretell the coming of the kingdom of God.  Jesus also has a poised way of conveying his teachings.  His sermons and teachings obviously had a substantial effect on his disciple and future believers, for Christianity still thrives today.  

Although all four documents emphasize various ideas, one thing is similar;  all convey a sense of moralism, as they promote the differences between right and wrong or good from evil.  It is fascinating to see how these significant figures, recorded in the documents, play a profound role in shaping societies and religions.